Unity in Strangers

One of the most striking aspects of Rastafari is how it has managed to stay alive.  Without any real center of worship or organized grouping, it is amazing how it has survived in its oppressive (downpressive) environment of Jamaica.  The Rastas have core beliefs of black-over-white that further exemplify this magnified state of prejudice.  While the whites of society were doing their best to eliminate the Afro-Jamaicans' voice, these people used it as an opportunity to create a common purpose and system of belief.  While this has happened in many different situations (our country is the result of religious intolerance in Europe) the Rastafari have accomplished it in a unique way.

While a very common way of life in Jamaica, Rastafarianism is practiced in smaller and lesser organized groups.  People come together to smoke ganja and have intense but unstructured conversation about life and religion.  There are specific rules for the way of life of Rastas, such as Ital living, and also a clear set of symbols that separate them from non-practicing persons.  These concise rules compensate for the less structured worship in which most Rastas take part(exceptions being the most devout bobos in the mountains.)

The whites of the Caribbean have tried unsuccessfully to stamp out this sense of unity and "blasphemous" religion, but they have not eliminated the passion that drives the movement.  The people have a deep faith in a common system of feeling exiled to their "Babylon."  The oppression these worshipers suffered for so long has left a less literal but still powerful feeling of not belonging.  The crowning of Hailie Selassie also encouraged their connection to the "Promised Land," and rejection of their surroundings.  While many no longer plan to actually move to Africa, this idealogy has become a jumping-off point for the study of psalms and and religious practice through the Rastafari lens.

Roughing it

Watching the video of the bobo village exposes most obviously their natural and traditional way of life.  They believe that Babylon is evil partly because of their dependence on artificial things like homes and food, addressed in the next paragraph.  Many villages of this variety have scant plumbing and even less electricity services.  The most conservative Rastas live in the mountains (borrowing from ancient Egyptian beliefs that they are literally closer to God) in these primitive conditions on principle.  This acceptance of a simple life is part of the Rastafari culture and connection to African roots.  All the people in the video seem to have a pleasant disposition despite knowing they could live more luxuriously, unlike many in Africa.  They live in huts to feel a connection to their promised land in Ethiopia and avoid the distractions of life in complex society.  Society also represents the almost institutionalized segregation a racial mistreatment the black Jamaicans experienced as recently as the forties.  These villages offer judgement-free structure, with psalm reading starting at 3am.  The impoverished living situations of the very religious Rastas are a vehicle for more focused attention on Jah and their theological studies.  

This guy is dumping out water because they don't have drains.

This emphasis on natural living extends beyond their literal habitat.  Rastas avoid chemicals as much as possible and try to live on organic foods only.  Because of their typically impoverishe living situation (it is much easier to live organically in an isolated situation like the video), the money for all-natural foods is often scarce and makes this practice difficult.  They are mainly vegetarian but eat the occasional meat that is from a list of specific and vegetarian animals.  This is to avoid developing a predatory nature from the food they eat.  The deep connection they have to their religion facilitates the sacrifices necessary to consume properly within the confines of Rastafarianism. 

The Ethiopian difference

The story told in the Kebra Negast was very similar to the Bible in some ways, but its fundamental differences made it a refreshing and fascinating piece of Ethiopian history.  Without knowing much context for this writing, it is easiest to focus on the content itself rather than the impact on its readers in Africa.

The first concept that stands out in the beginning of the story was the give-and-take relationships.  The rulers of the North and South were both very cooperative with the merchants of their areas.  Constituents had supplies, and the heads of state exchanged those for money.  While this may be seen as a buy-off situation, the writing displayed it as a more amicable dynamic between people in Jerusalem.  There are many more descriptions of the fruitful and prosperous Jerusalem throughout, including wealth and prosperity but also wisdom.  This extends to the description of Solomon, who, representing Jerusalem, furthers the benevolence.  He serves his people amazingly and speaks to them like equally human individuals with problems he can solve.  This is an obvious advertisement for Jews to come to Jerusalem, but the subtleties of the rulers' behavior and thought processes in the stories are what makes the work a convincing push towards leaving Ethiopia.  

Wisdom is the most important cause and theme in the Kebra Negast.  It supports the well-being of workers and nobles and creates a peaceful environment within Jerusalem in the story.  It is the reasoning behind Solomon and the Queen of Sheba's compassion for their people.  While Solomon describes it directly as God controlling his thoughts and actions, the queen is described as having developed her wisdom.  This trait is an interesting focus for a religious text.  Instead of faith or piety, wisdom is a much more humanistic view of living.  It is a way to treat people appropriately and handle one's own life responsibly. The portrayal of the queen describes it as a virtue one can acquire over time through deep thought and consideration of the environment.  Having wisdom as a cornerstone for religion encourages a "carpe diem" attitude, which leads to a better civilization and more people willing to assimilate into said religion.

The Kebra Negast functions very similarly to a Bible, with its short and captivating stories that follow a larger plot.  It stresses a sense of God, but also does not condemn for differences in opinion.  The people of Ethiopia are a diverse population religiously, as are the people over which the Queen of Sheba reigns.  She even follows a different higher power (the sun) than King Solomon (God of Isreal.)  Neither of these rulers is offended by the other, but instead willing to discuss the differences and respect each other for their earthly traits.  They each have a good relationship with their countries even if each country does so through a different set of beliefs.  This is a concept most important to the Ethiopians.  It is not only reasonable and describes a reasonable means of peaceful society, but it is something they can put faith in and use to improve themselves.  It is directly applicable to their situation with the assorted churches and caters to their lives rationally.

I'll tell YOU "how to read the bible."

Augustine's most empowering discussions in On Christian Doctrine are about signs.  Signs, he establishes, are things that require interpretation.  This can be done through education and proper translation.  It is to be done yielding further enjoyment for God, which is the only thing one should truly enjoy.  This includes worldly concepts, like science.  If they make sense, they can be attributed to God and thoroughly endorsed.  According to Augustine, all joy stems from the benefits and worship of God.  Once it is understood how to properly worship (that one has a good grasp on scripture) then it can be done independent of the physical literature. 

It seems that this, while being an entire book of rules, is a very permitting view of religious interpretation and Christianity.  He warns against hasty face-value understanding of scripture, which many could claim is a serious problem even in modern times.  Billings' article seemed to be a response to people taking the Bible too literally without any translational backing, only ancient and obsolete rationalization.  Augustine also allows for historical context to describe the emotions of the past readers and as means for further application of the scripture now.  The slower, more intimate connection he suggests one have with the Bible is much more constructive than the black and white description of "How to Read the Bible."  St. Augustine wants people to develop a spiritual connection to God and truly enjoy what they are reading as a result of confidence in the legitimacy of their beliefs.  While nothing is said in reference to tolerance of other religions, this is a view much more tolerant of different sects within Christianity.  Reading and later understanding without reading scripture is about loving one's self and God, which a refreshingly humanistic concept amongst much extremist religious literature.

Augustine lite

"How to Read the Bible" by Billings and the second book in St Augustine's On Christian Teaching have some noticeable but predictable similarities.  Augustine starts this chapter with a distinction between signs and things.  He states that signs should be "[paid attention to] for what they signify" (pg 30).  They are separate from actual objects that should be taken at face value.  He connects these signs to their most common application, in words. This, in turn, leads to a discussion of scripture and the ignorance of people of read the writing without proper analysis of its symbols.  The idea of misinterpretation is reflected clearly in the other article. Billings argues that "It's not just well-meaning writers but also many biblical scholars who fail to approach the Bible as Christian Scripture."  Like St Augustine,  Billings separates reading scripture while considering its historical context from the more correct, theological and presently applicable means of reading it.  
While St. Augustine separates the different ways to read scripture, he takes the differences as a opportunity to emphasize mindfulness when reading rather than developing a set of strict rules.  He believes reading is about taking many different perspectives, theological and scholarly, into account when making religion personal.  This includes a more spiritual application of the works.  Both, however, believe a harsh difference between "right and wrong" ways to read the Bible, saying that interpretation has become to loose and needs to have decided backing.  
This I feel the article's is a rather narrow view of scripture.  It is essentially saying that there are few ways practice Christianity.  While each specific and contextual meaning of the psalms may be obsolete at this time, understanding the cause of a writing is very important to its message.  The emotions portrayed by something written during or after the Babylonian captivity can be applied to modern times, but must also be understood by contemporary readers.  To understand history makes a person more wise and insightful about the present and future.  It is ignorant to suggest we should feel exactly as readers did a thousand years ago, which seems to be the deeper point within St. Augustine and Billings' writing.  Religion is malleable and should change over time to fit the needs of the people, but history has some bearing on people's emotions naturally.  A hybrid of both scholarly translation and historical interpretation, as well as a personal and poignant meaning is important to get the most out of practicing faith.  

psuper psalms.

Psalms 120-134 were absolutely the most enjoyable ones we've read thus far.  The ancient Isrealites really stepped up their literary abilities with these.   Each one is very short and lyrical.  They use beautiful terminology and imagery, like in line two of Psalm 126, "Then our mouths fill with laughter and our tongues with glad song." The pictures created are concise and interesting to read, but the biggest difference between these and the David psalms are the points they are using to encourage religion.  Previously, psalms were violent and scornful towards "heathens."  While ancient Isrealites were often targeted for their culture and religion, being the underdogs of the Near East is a poor excuse for saying "You (God) will smash them with a rod of iron, like a potter's jar you will dash them" in line 9 of Psalm 2.  One of the least polished verses in the song of ascents was  the fourth line of 123, "Sorely has our being been sated with contempt of the smug, the scorn of the haughty."  These psalms are more interested in morality as human beings and the understanding that a lack of morality will result in the "Lord [taking] them off as wrongdoers" (125:5).  I see this as a more constructive approach to writing psalms.  They instill a celebratory view of good behavior, rather than fear associated with misbehavior. Psalm 125 also mentions "peace upon Isreal," which is a much less combative view of people who disagree with Isreal.  To interpret the songs of ascent, one must be much more introspective than before. They focus on self improvement, and they are more resonant within each person.  Psalm 127 says in line 2 the "When you eat the toil of your hands, happy are you, and it is good for you."  At the same time, they also stress the togetherness of a group of independent people, later in that same psalm discussing family members and the continuation of Isreal.  The topics discussed throughout 120-134 are very universal and bring people together while also forcing them to improve themselves.  These psalms are beautifully worded and have a similarly beautiful set of messages.

Aten

These two prayers are oddly similar.  The ancient Egyptians worshipped their pharaohs like gods, especially Akhenaten.  He declared himself the sun-god, one of the most prevalent aspects of life in Egypt.  The hymn written for him is a very celebratory account of all the wonderful things he does for his people.  The same thing occurs in Psalm 104 by ancient Isrealites in reference to God.  For once, a psalm is the more concise work. The second line of psalm 104, "Wrapped in light like a cloak, stretching out heavens like a tent-cloth" is from the entire fourth verse of the Egyptian hymn about literally covering ones self in bed.  This continues throughout the comparison, the hymn is much more specific about the actions of Aten than the psalm is about God.  The hymn comes from the perspective in which the writer is praising Aten directly, telling him specific compliments that apply to a broad area of topics, like fertility and good harvests.  The psalm is not as personal but covers the same expanse of material in fewer words.  It is written to tell everyone reading the good that God has done, rather than for the writer to form a unique connection himself. The end of the psalm becomes more personal, suggesting what the writer will do to worship God with "let my speech be sweet unto Him" in line 34.  The hymn says approximately that same sentiment with "you are in my heart" in stanza 12, but it continues with a different ending.  The Egyptians also saw Akhenaten as human temporarily who can conveniently do amazing things.  The hymn end discussing his wife and earthly accomplishments, like the uniting of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Contextually, the Egyptian hymn was more appropriate to its audience than the later psalm.  For everyone to work together on large structures and trust the society they lived in, it was necessary that they put all faith into the leader.  Isrealites did that more by putting faith into leaders who were directed by God rather than gods themselves.  What is discussed in the hymn, such as "All distant lands, you make them live" in stanza 10 is obviously not possible for a real person.  But the Egyptian culture made this a legitimate claim.  Their success was dependent upon seeing Akhenaten as a person who completed legitimate things because of his other worldly powers.
The ancient Isrealites took from this writing the aura of factuality for their psalm.  They added better literary techniques that included more repetition (first line give God a verb, second line further describes the action) and clearer direction for a shorter piece of more attention-drawing work.  The psalm was written based upon principles of marketability of which the Egyptians scratched the surface.  As a culture always having to defend their religion, the vast examples of God's successes also applied in this new version of the old hymn.  They needed a list of things that displayed His greatness, and encouragement that he would protect them from enemies (line 39 fends off "offenders").  Both works fit within the Geertz definition for their respective religion.