works cited

Works Cited

Hamilton, Edith. Greek Mythology. Boston: Little, Brown and, 1942. Print.

Kitto, H.D.F. The Greeks. Baltimore: Pelican, 1951. Print.

Mykonos Island. Advertisement. History of Delos Island, Greece. Mykonos Web, 2011. Web. 16 Nov. 2011. <http://www.mykonos-web.com/mykonos/delos_history.htm>.

"Olympics." Ancient Greece. University Press, 2008. Web. 16 Nov. 2011. <http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Olympics/>. 

Permeating Society

The ancient Greeks also applied their religion to a variety of different aspect of life.  The most visible today is the Olympics, which surround the worship of Zeus (Olympics).  It included only male athletes competing in various events as a tribute to the strength and beauty of the gods.  The human body was an object of great celebration by the Greeks, as evidenced by their art.  This festivals occurred every 4 and 2 years, like the Summer and Winter Olympics now.  Women were not allowed to watch the games, and only Greek nationals were allowed to play (Olympics).  The games included a day of sacrifice in which 100 bulls were killed in the name of a specific god (Olympics).  The tie of wrestling, javelin toss, running and otherwise competing athletically to religion in the Greek culture is a very interesting one.

In addition to other festivals that celebrated many or just one god, the Greeks used the gods socially on a daily basis.  The religion started as a more complex polytheism with huge groups of gods and values to worship, but was later condensed into a more concise family of deities (Kitto 200). This represents a strong connection to family values within this society.  Another concept that was introduced upon the slow condensation of these characters was the bond between religion and morality.  Ananka was a power similar to will or morality that required independent worship, but it was later condensed into the simple will of Zeus, included as part of his character (Kitto 196).  It was this progression of the character of each of the gods that developed the strong sense of morality as seen through mythology.  There is a lesson to every myth, regardless of the seeming immorality of the gods' behavior.  Mythology as we know it today is what evolved during the late Alexandrian age (Kitto 203).  They used their adapted myths as satirical and dramatic poetry, and the stories were often told through theater in places like this;

The polytheistic religion of this time period permeated society in way that included social gatherings, overall entertainment of the masses, and the construction of huge buildings and temples.  The Parthenon at the acropolis is the prime example of the architecture encouraged by gods, this time namely Athena;

The characteristics exposed through these blog posting bring light to Greek mythology that is not just literary, but societal and religious.  It was a system of beliefs that structured how the ancient Greeks functioned on a regular basis.  

The Sacred Island

A sacred location in Greek culture is the island of Delos, near Mykonos.  When Leto was about to have the child of Zeus, he abandoned her in fear of his wife (Hamilton 433).  He refused her any land to give birth to the child, and she wandered aimlessly and desperately until she discovered the "floating island" of Delos, which was said to have no actual connection to the Earth.  There she had Apollo and Artemis (Hamilton 434).  

Since then, it has become an interesting hub of activity. There are ruins dating back over 5000 years, including multiple temples to Apollo, Artemis and other related gods by a variety of cultures; Ionian, Macedonian, Roman, Phoenicians, Egytians, etc (Mykonos).  While these cultures inhabited the island, it is now only available for day trips to see the massive quantities of ruins built on top of each other.  

Delos is an interesting place because of its rich history, but also its place in Greek mythology.  It is curiously without foliage, and the sun always radiates the island's white marble.  The island emanates an auspicious sort of vibe, and even modern day people don't allow residents to stay overnight because of its sacred qualities.  In 425 BC it was purified; graves were removed and residence was declared illegal (Mykonos).  It represents a religious location for the ancient Greeks that will permanently stay religious.  They embedded their religion into their culture so that their beliefs would stand that test of time.  

General order of existence

Greek mythology as a religion also provides a sense of security, another aspect of the definition by Geertz.  This is done through the complicated process of the afterlife.  Without getting too much into it, they believed in a system somewhat similar to heaven and hell. Everyone passes a three-headed dog, Cerebus (Hamilton 43).  He is the main reason that nobody leaves once they have entered the underworld, commonly known as Tartarus.  There are three judges, Rhadamanthus, Minos and Aeacus who judge each individual and determine whether they suffer in torment for eternity of live in the Elysian Fields, the place for "good" people (Hamilton 44).  The three furies torment sinners forever while heroes and people who worshiped appropriately spend the rest of time in a lovely environment.  The ideas presented by this very complex system convinced the ancient Greeks to stay pious and moral.

The morals included in this society were ones taught by the stories in their mythology.  Each god had weaknesses just like mortals, only these weaknesses caused much more trouble for beings on such a massive scale.  Pandora's box is a prime story to exemplify the lessons Greeks learned from their religion.  Each god had put something harmful into a box and gave it to Pandora.  Since she was a woman and therefore, according to the ancient Greeks, inherently curious, she opened this box against their strictest orders.  From then on the human race was plagued with sorrows (Hamilton 88).  At the bottom of the box, however, remained a final trait from the gods; hope.  This displays not only the shallow weariness of women, but the idea that flaws exist in society and each individual has the choice to have hope and will power to overcome those flaws.  Through the innumerable stories of deceit, adultery, and revenge within Greek mythology, there is always a clear alternative option in the stories that provides a moral direction for how readers should live.

Geertz applied

The Geertz definition is easily applied to Greek mythology.  The definition starts with the system of symbols, which is in itself the system of gods.  They are each represented by different objects (Hermes is often depicted with the winged helmet and shoes, Aphrodite on a shell with hearts.)   The Greeks were famous for their statues of their dieties, perfectly proportioned to display the most physically fit definition of man.  Here is am example from the museum at Delos;

The Greeks used their gods as a path to art and the creation of symbols.  Often, Greeks also made sacrifices to their gods using the symbols prescribed to each issue at hand.  When the weather was bad at sea, sailors were likely to pray and make sacrifices to Poseidon.  They might even sacrifice a horse in his name, because of Poseidon's connection with horses and chariots (Hamilton, 26).  Each problem in society had a different god to to combat it, and a different means of worshiping the problem away.  Though individuals could pray at home or any time,  going to temple was a social activity as well as a religious one.  The Greeks are famous for their amazing architecture, visible in this ruin;

  Different temples were assigned to different gods, this one being for Artemis, goddess of the woods and hunting.  Religion existed for the ancient Greeks much like it does for Christians in a small farm town- they came together and used it as an opportunity to gossip and meet new people or old friends.

This system of symbols survives the second qualifier for religion as well, that it is long-lasting and pervasive.  Though an extinct belief system, the mythology of the Greeks can be traced legitimately as far as 1000 BC, the best guess for when the Illiad was written (Hamilton, 16).  There are sculptures of gods dating from around this time that continue well into the Roman empire, and are adapted throughout that culture as well.  The system they established was concrete enough to apply to the Romans long after the descent of Greece.  Nonbelievers throughout these periods were executed.  Christians were placed in amphitheaters to fight lions and trained gladiators, simply because of their unwillingness to adopt this polytheistic view of the world.  It is clear that this religion would not have survived if it had not been a convincing web a beliefs.  It created an aura of factuality that lasted a long time, which makes it a legitimate religion under the definition provided by Geertz.

Welcome to the Pagan Community!

While this class was very informative about a variety of religions, I felt this class left out a significant domain of religion; polytheism.  In high school, many students read the Norse, Roman and Hindu myths.  They discuss each story, analyze the character of many gods, and get lost in the intricacies of so many faults, strengths, and love affairs in the tales.  While they are considered literature that is material to understanding the ancient world as well as modern society, mythology is one that is not often explored from a legitimately religious standpoint.  In light of this realization and a recent trip to Greece, I have decided to apply the Geertz definition of religion to ancient Greek mythology.

To briefly overview Greek mythology, it is founded upon the God of the Sun, Zeus, who is the most powerful and a sort of director for the other gods.  These gods are subsequently in charge of other aspects of life, such as Ares, God of War, and Dionysus, God of Wine and Party. All gods are somehow vaguely connected through family and romantic ties, many yielding from Zeus' philandery and his actual marriage to Hera, Goddess of Marriage.  They are involved in many interactions with humans and each other, the latter of which often affects the humans.  Each god has different tendencies and vices, and a separate character that worshipers must appeal to for the best results of their prayer.  This is a very diluted definition of Greek mythology, but will be more exposed as specific myths are presented throughout the explanation of the religion.  

I will begin this description of the ancient Greek religion by restating the Geertz definition of religion; "A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic."

Abraham anachronisms!

I am totally sick of reading Joseph Smith.  The Book of Mormon was not an easy read.  Even the minister from Jamaica in that video admitted it took a lot of time to get into the literature. I call it literature because the material is absolutely ridiculous.  He takes Christianity, flips it upside down, and then figures out a way to gain credibility and followers with cash.  I am amazed that this religion has become so widespread, especially based upon how many Mormons I know versus the number of Baha'i followers.  The main point is that our prompt asks us for signals that this text is not actually from 2000 BC, and I my response is that all questions regarding this work are asinine and I'm giving up on this text.

Well... not quite, I do realize I should comment on something so famously controversial.  The Book of Abraham is essentially a twisted story of Abraham's life.  It includes all sorts of facts that do not apply in any other religious texts; Abraham has not, to my knowledge, been almost sacrificed before.  He also did not take special interest in astronomy or spirits.  These seems like a simple conglomeration of odd religions the vaguely apply to the foundations of the Old Testament.  When Joseph says "And it came to pass," his literature's credibility, in my opinion, is totally blown.  I don't think his drawings at the back and the front look at all similar to ancient Egytians', nor could they apply to any humans (these figures looks much more god-like, humans were drawn based upon specific proportioning rules.)  I am ecstatic to be working on Greek mythology after this, because it is has just as (if not more) cock-a-mamy stories, AND they are written cleverly with personalities for the characters.  They do not pretend to be something they are not.  I feel that if Joseph Smith had written his set of Mormon values based upon a text that was authentic to the nineteenth century style of life in America, then he would have developed a less exile-able culture.

So many plates

An interesting aspect of this religion is the reoccurring theme of sacred plates.  I wonder if the idea of worshiping these odd tablets has any spiritual value apart from the content.  Joseph Smith supposedly finds golden plates buried in the woods of upstate New York.  Since they have unknown reformed hieroglyphics on them, he takes i upon himself as God's request to translate them. They are too powerful and auspicious to be viewed by anyone other than Smith, so he "hides" them and they're never seen again.  Though nobody ever sees these plates, they have become the fundamental literature for the faith itself.  Since the initial finding, there are other mentions of plates within what we've read in class.  The different chapters and books themselves describe their creation, including the Book of Mormon, which was written upon metal plates by Mormon and Moroni.

Joseph probably chose the form of a plate for his scripture because of the mysterious aspect of its discovery.  He needed something more durable than parchment so he could find something so old undecayed.  The fact that these tablets are gold also brings an aura of fantastic miracle and spectacle to the religion.  The Mormons depend heavily upon a close relationship with God.  He is often mentioned as telling the leaders what to do expressly and staying in contact.  Smith claims he called out to God and he answered, and it is not very often in this book that God does not respond to these people.

The plate motif is also a reference to Moses and the 10 Commandments.  This connects Mormons to more well-established faiths.  It gives them the credibility of Christianity but then offers a literal blank slate upon which to write a much more convoluted interpretation of history.  The Book of Ether draws distinct parallels between the exile, captivity, and general story of the Jews.   It establishes a promised land (America) while also giving an excuse to be racist against the Native Americans.  All of this stems from the use of plates and a desperate desire for validity and a Mormon following.

"Its a legit frenzy!"

Especially for Mormonism in the 19th century, legitimacy was the top priority.  Starting a new religion using dubious historical background without much tangible evidence required very strong leadership and literature.  The third book of Nephi includes a chapter in which the Lord Jesus Christ comes to the Mormons.  This discussion is littered with answers to the nineteenth century issues associated with establishing a this belief system.  


Jesus starts by declaring certain members of the community able to baptize.  The point of these words, "Behold, ye shall go down and stand in the water, and in my name shall ye baptize them" is to provide a legitimate way for the Mormons to become a tight-knit group and easily facilitate the accumulation of other followers.  The nineteenth century is notable for its intolerance and necessary development of communities, like China Town in New York City.  The prospect of baptism into this very unique faith offers opportunities to its leaders; the association becomes one of more importance in society overall with more people.  It also provides a stronger sense of belief through this very conventional but at the time compulsory activity of baptizing children and their entire families.  


To further unite the community of Mormons, Jesus discusses peace; "Behold, this is not my doctrine, to stir up the hearts of men with anger, one against another; but this is my doctrine, that such things should be done away."  This is another important aspect of acquiring a foothold in society.  Peace brings people together, and this message also ties a religion into the group.  The message of this conversation with Jesus suggests that the legitimacy of the religion is dependent upon the uniform belief system of its followers.  This is accomplished by having everyone baptized and interested in working together.  While this is a clear and hopefully often held desire for peace, it is one that Joseph Smith used to grab hold of his nineteenth century readers. 

Fearless Leader

 The most successful leaders are a direct result of the way they distribute their intellectual property.  They are charasmatic in person, in their speaking, and through their writing.  Baha'u'llah's new religious ideas were dependent upon his educated and beautiful manner of communicating.
This starts with his lifelong struggle (and response) to the oppression of conservative Islam. Baha'u'llah suffered repeated victimization, such as the Black Pit and the constant death threats during his time in Iraq.  Through this, he lost the companionship of his brother and a few other close followers.  At the same time, however, he continued to send out articles and literature about his mistreatment.  He explained once that "The weight of the chain placed about Our neck was difficult to bear, but having the thumbs of both hands bound together behind the back was even more aggravating" (28).  This developed a sense of unity amongst people who don't like torture and wrongful detainment (hopefully all people).

In addition to developing that unity, Baha'u'llah used his experiences as a mechanism to expose the importance of the unity of religion.  His persecution was the perfect ground upon which to build a belief system of cooperation throughout humanity.  He said this through his style of writing, "He Who hath come to build anew the whole world, behold, how they that have joined partners with God have forced Him to dwell in the most desolate of cities" (173)!  The capitalized letters are referring to God, but also members of humanity as whole.  He brings people together as one race, humbly applies his experiences to the suffering of everyone who hasn't been brought together.

Lastly, Baha'u'llah was the ideal prophet (fearless leader, only not comically evil) because of his literary genius and overall charisma.  His wrote eloquently and comprehensively and was extremely prolific overall. His Baha'i hymns and chants included either beautiful or otherwise very vivid imagery.  This includes a part of "O Son of Spirit"; "Veiled in My immemorial being and in the ancient eternity of My essence, I knew My love for thee; therefore I created thee" (162).  This interesting perspective of God speaking of his creation of man bring intrigue in this religion as well as the request for theological guidance.  The intrigue was spread through Baha'u'llah's letter to major leaders of countries and other religions, including various kings, Napoleon, and Pope Pius IX.  His writing style and ability to market his beliefs through his talent for writing is what makes Baha'i as successful as it has been since its origination.

only one humanity

"And yet, each person schemed after his own desire, and pursued his own ideal fancy, until the hour when, from the Mystic Source, there came the summons bidding Us return whence We came. Surrendering Our will to His, We submitted to His injunction" (42, Momen).

This quotation comes from Baha'u'llah's writings about returning to Baghdad despite original intentions.  While it has very specific context, the writing style can be extended to his teaching about universality and the togetherness of people in general.  This is most obviously exposed by his capitalism of His and God's pronouns, but also the capitalism of "Our" and "We,"  representing the human race.  Baha'u'llah does speak for only himself when referencing God, but rather everyone together following his rule.  This makes every individual feel important and worthy of worshipping God, but also part of something greater that is a community.  The way Baha'u'llah writes facilitates and encourages the participation of all.

His connection to God and the use of Baha'i also makes it much more applicable to the modern world than the surrounding Muslim religions.  During conflict pertaining to the usual oppression of Baha'i, he exclaimed, "Have I at any time transgressed your laws, or disobeyed any of your ministers in Iraq? Inquire of them, that ye may act with discernment towards Us and be numbered with those who are well-informed" (71).  This brings God into the modern era as an acting witness to current injustice.  He is making his Baha'i faith a current religion in which God takes care of people that do right.  He is also providing an example for his followers and exposing an example of injustice for his followers to avoid.

The Baha'i faith connects to the compassion video in many ways.  Its concept of commonality among people and pursuit of peace is crucial; the faith is about avoiding intolerance and accepting everyone into a community in which all can take part and be constructively religious.  Being constructively religious, according to the video, also means being compassionate to people in need regardless of their intolerance or religious beliefs.  Both of these sources are a means of bringing people together through a panacea faith that accepts all.

Unity in Strangers

One of the most striking aspects of Rastafari is how it has managed to stay alive.  Without any real center of worship or organized grouping, it is amazing how it has survived in its oppressive (downpressive) environment of Jamaica.  The Rastas have core beliefs of black-over-white that further exemplify this magnified state of prejudice.  While the whites of society were doing their best to eliminate the Afro-Jamaicans' voice, these people used it as an opportunity to create a common purpose and system of belief.  While this has happened in many different situations (our country is the result of religious intolerance in Europe) the Rastafari have accomplished it in a unique way.

While a very common way of life in Jamaica, Rastafarianism is practiced in smaller and lesser organized groups.  People come together to smoke ganja and have intense but unstructured conversation about life and religion.  There are specific rules for the way of life of Rastas, such as Ital living, and also a clear set of symbols that separate them from non-practicing persons.  These concise rules compensate for the less structured worship in which most Rastas take part(exceptions being the most devout bobos in the mountains.)

The whites of the Caribbean have tried unsuccessfully to stamp out this sense of unity and "blasphemous" religion, but they have not eliminated the passion that drives the movement.  The people have a deep faith in a common system of feeling exiled to their "Babylon."  The oppression these worshipers suffered for so long has left a less literal but still powerful feeling of not belonging.  The crowning of Hailie Selassie also encouraged their connection to the "Promised Land," and rejection of their surroundings.  While many no longer plan to actually move to Africa, this idealogy has become a jumping-off point for the study of psalms and and religious practice through the Rastafari lens.

Roughing it

Watching the video of the bobo village exposes most obviously their natural and traditional way of life.  They believe that Babylon is evil partly because of their dependence on artificial things like homes and food, addressed in the next paragraph.  Many villages of this variety have scant plumbing and even less electricity services.  The most conservative Rastas live in the mountains (borrowing from ancient Egyptian beliefs that they are literally closer to God) in these primitive conditions on principle.  This acceptance of a simple life is part of the Rastafari culture and connection to African roots.  All the people in the video seem to have a pleasant disposition despite knowing they could live more luxuriously, unlike many in Africa.  They live in huts to feel a connection to their promised land in Ethiopia and avoid the distractions of life in complex society.  Society also represents the almost institutionalized segregation a racial mistreatment the black Jamaicans experienced as recently as the forties.  These villages offer judgement-free structure, with psalm reading starting at 3am.  The impoverished living situations of the very religious Rastas are a vehicle for more focused attention on Jah and their theological studies.  

This guy is dumping out water because they don't have drains.

This emphasis on natural living extends beyond their literal habitat.  Rastas avoid chemicals as much as possible and try to live on organic foods only.  Because of their typically impoverishe living situation (it is much easier to live organically in an isolated situation like the video), the money for all-natural foods is often scarce and makes this practice difficult.  They are mainly vegetarian but eat the occasional meat that is from a list of specific and vegetarian animals.  This is to avoid developing a predatory nature from the food they eat.  The deep connection they have to their religion facilitates the sacrifices necessary to consume properly within the confines of Rastafarianism. 

The Ethiopian difference

The story told in the Kebra Negast was very similar to the Bible in some ways, but its fundamental differences made it a refreshing and fascinating piece of Ethiopian history.  Without knowing much context for this writing, it is easiest to focus on the content itself rather than the impact on its readers in Africa.

The first concept that stands out in the beginning of the story was the give-and-take relationships.  The rulers of the North and South were both very cooperative with the merchants of their areas.  Constituents had supplies, and the heads of state exchanged those for money.  While this may be seen as a buy-off situation, the writing displayed it as a more amicable dynamic between people in Jerusalem.  There are many more descriptions of the fruitful and prosperous Jerusalem throughout, including wealth and prosperity but also wisdom.  This extends to the description of Solomon, who, representing Jerusalem, furthers the benevolence.  He serves his people amazingly and speaks to them like equally human individuals with problems he can solve.  This is an obvious advertisement for Jews to come to Jerusalem, but the subtleties of the rulers' behavior and thought processes in the stories are what makes the work a convincing push towards leaving Ethiopia.  

Wisdom is the most important cause and theme in the Kebra Negast.  It supports the well-being of workers and nobles and creates a peaceful environment within Jerusalem in the story.  It is the reasoning behind Solomon and the Queen of Sheba's compassion for their people.  While Solomon describes it directly as God controlling his thoughts and actions, the queen is described as having developed her wisdom.  This trait is an interesting focus for a religious text.  Instead of faith or piety, wisdom is a much more humanistic view of living.  It is a way to treat people appropriately and handle one's own life responsibly. The portrayal of the queen describes it as a virtue one can acquire over time through deep thought and consideration of the environment.  Having wisdom as a cornerstone for religion encourages a "carpe diem" attitude, which leads to a better civilization and more people willing to assimilate into said religion.

The Kebra Negast functions very similarly to a Bible, with its short and captivating stories that follow a larger plot.  It stresses a sense of God, but also does not condemn for differences in opinion.  The people of Ethiopia are a diverse population religiously, as are the people over which the Queen of Sheba reigns.  She even follows a different higher power (the sun) than King Solomon (God of Isreal.)  Neither of these rulers is offended by the other, but instead willing to discuss the differences and respect each other for their earthly traits.  They each have a good relationship with their countries even if each country does so through a different set of beliefs.  This is a concept most important to the Ethiopians.  It is not only reasonable and describes a reasonable means of peaceful society, but it is something they can put faith in and use to improve themselves.  It is directly applicable to their situation with the assorted churches and caters to their lives rationally.

I'll tell YOU "how to read the bible."

Augustine's most empowering discussions in On Christian Doctrine are about signs.  Signs, he establishes, are things that require interpretation.  This can be done through education and proper translation.  It is to be done yielding further enjoyment for God, which is the only thing one should truly enjoy.  This includes worldly concepts, like science.  If they make sense, they can be attributed to God and thoroughly endorsed.  According to Augustine, all joy stems from the benefits and worship of God.  Once it is understood how to properly worship (that one has a good grasp on scripture) then it can be done independent of the physical literature. 

It seems that this, while being an entire book of rules, is a very permitting view of religious interpretation and Christianity.  He warns against hasty face-value understanding of scripture, which many could claim is a serious problem even in modern times.  Billings' article seemed to be a response to people taking the Bible too literally without any translational backing, only ancient and obsolete rationalization.  Augustine also allows for historical context to describe the emotions of the past readers and as means for further application of the scripture now.  The slower, more intimate connection he suggests one have with the Bible is much more constructive than the black and white description of "How to Read the Bible."  St. Augustine wants people to develop a spiritual connection to God and truly enjoy what they are reading as a result of confidence in the legitimacy of their beliefs.  While nothing is said in reference to tolerance of other religions, this is a view much more tolerant of different sects within Christianity.  Reading and later understanding without reading scripture is about loving one's self and God, which a refreshingly humanistic concept amongst much extremist religious literature.

Augustine lite

"How to Read the Bible" by Billings and the second book in St Augustine's On Christian Teaching have some noticeable but predictable similarities.  Augustine starts this chapter with a distinction between signs and things.  He states that signs should be "[paid attention to] for what they signify" (pg 30).  They are separate from actual objects that should be taken at face value.  He connects these signs to their most common application, in words. This, in turn, leads to a discussion of scripture and the ignorance of people of read the writing without proper analysis of its symbols.  The idea of misinterpretation is reflected clearly in the other article. Billings argues that "It's not just well-meaning writers but also many biblical scholars who fail to approach the Bible as Christian Scripture."  Like St Augustine,  Billings separates reading scripture while considering its historical context from the more correct, theological and presently applicable means of reading it.  
While St. Augustine separates the different ways to read scripture, he takes the differences as a opportunity to emphasize mindfulness when reading rather than developing a set of strict rules.  He believes reading is about taking many different perspectives, theological and scholarly, into account when making religion personal.  This includes a more spiritual application of the works.  Both, however, believe a harsh difference between "right and wrong" ways to read the Bible, saying that interpretation has become to loose and needs to have decided backing.  
This I feel the article's is a rather narrow view of scripture.  It is essentially saying that there are few ways practice Christianity.  While each specific and contextual meaning of the psalms may be obsolete at this time, understanding the cause of a writing is very important to its message.  The emotions portrayed by something written during or after the Babylonian captivity can be applied to modern times, but must also be understood by contemporary readers.  To understand history makes a person more wise and insightful about the present and future.  It is ignorant to suggest we should feel exactly as readers did a thousand years ago, which seems to be the deeper point within St. Augustine and Billings' writing.  Religion is malleable and should change over time to fit the needs of the people, but history has some bearing on people's emotions naturally.  A hybrid of both scholarly translation and historical interpretation, as well as a personal and poignant meaning is important to get the most out of practicing faith.  

psuper psalms.

Psalms 120-134 were absolutely the most enjoyable ones we've read thus far.  The ancient Isrealites really stepped up their literary abilities with these.   Each one is very short and lyrical.  They use beautiful terminology and imagery, like in line two of Psalm 126, "Then our mouths fill with laughter and our tongues with glad song." The pictures created are concise and interesting to read, but the biggest difference between these and the David psalms are the points they are using to encourage religion.  Previously, psalms were violent and scornful towards "heathens."  While ancient Isrealites were often targeted for their culture and religion, being the underdogs of the Near East is a poor excuse for saying "You (God) will smash them with a rod of iron, like a potter's jar you will dash them" in line 9 of Psalm 2.  One of the least polished verses in the song of ascents was  the fourth line of 123, "Sorely has our being been sated with contempt of the smug, the scorn of the haughty."  These psalms are more interested in morality as human beings and the understanding that a lack of morality will result in the "Lord [taking] them off as wrongdoers" (125:5).  I see this as a more constructive approach to writing psalms.  They instill a celebratory view of good behavior, rather than fear associated with misbehavior. Psalm 125 also mentions "peace upon Isreal," which is a much less combative view of people who disagree with Isreal.  To interpret the songs of ascent, one must be much more introspective than before. They focus on self improvement, and they are more resonant within each person.  Psalm 127 says in line 2 the "When you eat the toil of your hands, happy are you, and it is good for you."  At the same time, they also stress the togetherness of a group of independent people, later in that same psalm discussing family members and the continuation of Isreal.  The topics discussed throughout 120-134 are very universal and bring people together while also forcing them to improve themselves.  These psalms are beautifully worded and have a similarly beautiful set of messages.

Aten

These two prayers are oddly similar.  The ancient Egyptians worshipped their pharaohs like gods, especially Akhenaten.  He declared himself the sun-god, one of the most prevalent aspects of life in Egypt.  The hymn written for him is a very celebratory account of all the wonderful things he does for his people.  The same thing occurs in Psalm 104 by ancient Isrealites in reference to God.  For once, a psalm is the more concise work. The second line of psalm 104, "Wrapped in light like a cloak, stretching out heavens like a tent-cloth" is from the entire fourth verse of the Egyptian hymn about literally covering ones self in bed.  This continues throughout the comparison, the hymn is much more specific about the actions of Aten than the psalm is about God.  The hymn comes from the perspective in which the writer is praising Aten directly, telling him specific compliments that apply to a broad area of topics, like fertility and good harvests.  The psalm is not as personal but covers the same expanse of material in fewer words.  It is written to tell everyone reading the good that God has done, rather than for the writer to form a unique connection himself. The end of the psalm becomes more personal, suggesting what the writer will do to worship God with "let my speech be sweet unto Him" in line 34.  The hymn says approximately that same sentiment with "you are in my heart" in stanza 12, but it continues with a different ending.  The Egyptians also saw Akhenaten as human temporarily who can conveniently do amazing things.  The hymn end discussing his wife and earthly accomplishments, like the uniting of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Contextually, the Egyptian hymn was more appropriate to its audience than the later psalm.  For everyone to work together on large structures and trust the society they lived in, it was necessary that they put all faith into the leader.  Isrealites did that more by putting faith into leaders who were directed by God rather than gods themselves.  What is discussed in the hymn, such as "All distant lands, you make them live" in stanza 10 is obviously not possible for a real person.  But the Egyptian culture made this a legitimate claim.  Their success was dependent upon seeing Akhenaten as a person who completed legitimate things because of his other worldly powers.
The ancient Isrealites took from this writing the aura of factuality for their psalm.  They added better literary techniques that included more repetition (first line give God a verb, second line further describes the action) and clearer direction for a shorter piece of more attention-drawing work.  The psalm was written based upon principles of marketability of which the Egyptians scratched the surface.  As a culture always having to defend their religion, the vast examples of God's successes also applied in this new version of the old hymn.  They needed a list of things that displayed His greatness, and encouragement that he would protect them from enemies (line 39 fends off "offenders").  Both works fit within the Geertz definition for their respective religion.

Another thing about psalms.

However repetitive this may be, I was more fascinated by the purpose of the psalms than their actual content.  They are a collection of artificially clumped songs or poems which repeat the same messages in slightly different fashions.  While the psalms were originally written in Hebrew, they have been applied to several different denominations of Christianity.  This is possible because of the all-encompassing and pleasant wording that lends itself to multiple interpretations and translations.  The Book of Psalms is a means for many people of different religions to develop a more personal connection with God.
Their original purpose was also to create a sense of community within Judaism.  They discuss how God as they worship it is the only proper God, and that the Jewish people are the chosen people of that God.  This is ironic because while the Psalms bring people together, they also cause conflict between the different religions that employ it.  The forgiving language lends itself to a broader audience, while also leading people to reject each other's inevitable differentiated interpretations.  This is the tragic flaw of religion as discussed in our first New York Times reading, that while it creates an aura of factuality, that aura is very judgemental and intolerant.

Discrepancies

Reading the two books of Psalms side by side exposes huge differences in translation.  The very first line of Psalm 2; "Why are the nations aroused, and the peoples murmur vain things"  vs. "Why rage the heathen furiously, muse vain things people do" develops a vastly different connotation, the latter being from the Bay Psalm book of 1640.  This initial assymetry displays the inflammatory and harsh wording of the Bay Psalms, before the comma especially.  It is realized that the modern psalm book cannot be trusted completely with objectivity.  However, throughout the introduction and lengthy explanations within the text in the edition translated by Alter, one is led to believe it is as analytical and well researched as possible.  The religious turmoil centuries before regarding the Book of Psalms is clearly represented by the Bay Psalms and its language in reference to differing religions.
At the same time,  there are some discrepancies that matter very little to the total meaning of the psalms.  Without quoting anything specific, Psalm 8 is worded differently but with a very similar emotion between the two books.  Both discuss the the world and God's strength within it, describing all the different men and animals in the order of Genesis.  The process by which God displayed his majesty on Earth, based upon this psalm, has been consistent throughout hundreds of years.
The interesting part lies within the biases of the original texts we are not supplied with; something like the ur-religion of the Book of Psalms.  In Psalm 23 on line 3, the Bay translation says "Restore my soule doth hee" when the newly translated book arrives at "my life He brings back."  A soul provides greater importance for religious people than a simple life on Earth.  But does the original text written by or for David discuss soul restoring or returning one's life?  In class it was mentioned that the Psalms were written by a myriad of people for a myriad of different worshippers.  They are about finding the right voice for each person, hence the repetition with minor changes in word choice, not designed to cause uproar between differing religions.  The translational differences are a result of trying to grasp wholly each individual who reads them in whatever time period.  Religion is a malleable concept, mainly based upon changes in current events.

Lametown, USA

I was pretty skeptical when I first heard we would be studying the Indian mounds of Wisconsin. Since I live on Little Lake Butte des Morts and have been in a Wisconsin public school, teachers have seemingly been trying to portray these mounds as numbingly dull as possible.  I have never been exposed to any real information regarding these tiny hills, apart from the fact that Indians made them a really long time ago.  Besides displaying how absurdly ignorant I am,  I feel this ties into our discussion of the longstanding racism whites established when they first arrived in North America.
The explorers who discovered the mounds covering the Midwest landscape did not believe the natives were competent enough to build them, and thus developed other far more outlandish rationalities for the earthworks' existence. Without discussing the Atlantis or ten lost tribes theories,  I find it amazing how a group of people could collectively repress an even larger group of people immediately.  The Native Americans did not  have records or necessarily accurate understandings of the mounds' origin either, but they were written off far more severely than they deserved.  As is later revealed by this book (among other things), they had a very meaningful process of burying the dead and ceremonial rituals suggesting a strong sense of religion.  I can only assume that the explorers who came to America might have respected these practices if they took the time to study them, given the impact of religion upon Europe at the time.  Alas, the very tolerance on which our country is founded exposes our opposite and very serious intolerance issues.  We could have significantly more accurate and interesting things to report about the Native Americans atleast hundreds of years ago had the early visitors been less focused on gold and publishing pseudoscience.  My education would have made me more well-rounded and accepting of cultures, instead of assuming anthropological studies are inherently dull.

Effigy mounds

"A system of symbols" is the framework upon which a religion is designed.  It is the "webbing," a term we used in class, that provides a group of people with emotional comfort and stability.  In the case of Native Americans thousands of years ago, their effigy mounds and the values from which this practice stems were a clear source of that stability.  This action occurred over many generations, suggesting that their religion was not provoked to change for a long time.  The system of symbols associate with burying the dead and piling a hill of dirt over the bodies was a solid one.
The process itself over time became very specific.  It was originally simple and disorganized mass grave sites in the Copper Age. Steadily, evidence was exposed for later sites in which people were placed in definite positions for their burial.  Often people were buried and re-buried for ceremonial reasons.  In the case of the large mound complex at Hopewell, the intricate log-lined crypts contained very organized piles of bones and space for newer bodies, in addition to repositories to act as "waiting rooms"  for a spot in the crypts.  Some bodies were even cremated, and the mounds were burned and made taller after they were full. Many individuals were laid down with valuable objects and little symbols of animals, which suggests a religious connection to nature.  There were many other rituals associated with dying including smoking and ceremonies that need not be mentioned specifically.

What all these practices amount to is a reasonable theory for religious inclinations of ancient Americans.  They had developed a system of symbols animals, different types of stones, and a death ritual.  The first provided was a way to receive protection in this life and the next.  In the theory of totemism, different individuals would have the separate characteristics of each animal; carnivores could be strong and cunning, herbivores might be agile or patient.  These added supports helped establish a sense that nature was on the Native Americans' side, and that they would have the protection of the same "animal people" of their community.  The obsidian, pottery, and other objects found with bodies in burial mounds told these people a similar story about the order of existence.  Theorized not to be a measure of the deceased's family wealth, the elaborate trinkets were given by many members of the community (generosity was a much more important than maintaining wealth, probably a religious virtue) as offerings for a respected end of life.  The intricate symbols on silver, copper,  pottery, etc would not have been buried with the dead if they had no religious purpose.  Large sites in conical and otherwise shaped forms were not just a funny thing to do in one's spare time, they were a religious commitment done to feel a sense of security in what happens to loved ones post-death.  The Native Americans had developed a system by which they could feel safe in sending people into the unknown, and recognize an order in which different rituals had to occur for a given order of existence.

Free blog week 1

I really identified with the spandrel theory after reading Monday's article.  This is probably because of the lack of evidence for adaptationist theory, but the concepts of voids that need filling was very comprehensive.  Before this class, I believed in the simple explanation for religion that it provided a set of answers for the unknown and a sense of security.  The staircase metaphor coincides with this very succinctly; we have survival skills that lead us to a better life, and what we do with "the underside of our staircase"  is our choice.  This allowed for a myriad of different religions over time, which of course yielded a myriad of different conflicts throughout the world as we discussed in class.  While I believe now that we cannot necessarily just "ditch" religion for biological reasons, the question I gather is this; can we fill that void with a similar belief in more scientifically established concepts?  We talked about how Harris and Dawkins were almost "fundamental atheists" in their thought processes, but I do not feel that is what they are trying to proselytize.  Their time is spent knocking down religion as a whole instead of providing an alternative.  I feel as modern social engineers they are looking to stir up trouble more than anything else, a stalemate which is proving itself a common phenomenon and the cause of much social unrest and a general lack of advancement.

Believe vs Ditch

There are many people in America and across the world that are frustrated with politics.  It is clear that nuclear proliferation, poverty, and genocide, as Harris lists, are more crucial discussion topics to the world's survival than social issues like gay marriage and abortion.  With the economic turmoil America faces, we should not be diminishing the issues that could displace the balance of world power by belaboring controversial topics for religious extremists.  That said, it is unfair to declare that religion is the downfall of politics as Harris does.  The New York Times article discussed the cognitive desire for answers to the unknown, saying  it was an evolutionary byproduct of survival skills.  Our opinions and "leaps of faith" come from an insatiable desire to feel confident in the unknown, and they may be more or less counter intuitive based upon each group's imagination and emotional strife.  This has caused many religious wars that inevitably introduced the governments and politics of many nations.  The governments, however, were also involved in these conflicts for economic and strategic reasons.  The Crusades were not just about getting the Holy Land, but trade and a power struggle throughout Eurasia.  Atran suggests that religion is the "tragedy of human cognition," which is far less extreme than to say people who take certainty from uncertain situations are usually plain wrong in their beliefs.  The former is more palatable but also much more accurate and allowing of other cultures, for which we as a species must allow. 

Coming from a non-religious background, I feel there are very useful parts to having a framework of religion in one's life.  It provides a set of morals and motivation with which to help others (less than Tom Cruise may require) and maintain a high quality of life.  It also creates dissonance among people with its absolute terms and intolerance.  A utopian idea of religious society would include allowance for other beliefs on specifics and the afterlife.  While a Jewish person may not eat pork, he should not necessarily preach to others to follow him.  Religion should be used as a tool to instigate improvement in world conditions and focus on issues like genocide and nuclear proliferation, not to distract from the big problems.  As discussed in the first day of class, religion is separate from spirituality, and almost secular in what should be its inclinations towards international stability.